How do plant demographic and ecological traits combined with social dynamics and human traits affect woody plant selection for medicinal uses in Benin (West Africa)?

BACKGROUND: Several hypotheses have been used in ethnobotany to explain the plant's selection criteria by people for their daily needs. Thus, it is important to assess synergy and complementarity among them, especially, those concerning the plant use value, social dynamics and human traits. The study aims to (i) highlight people's socio-economic factors, and plant ecological traits that affect the plant use-availability dynamic (PUD); and (ii) assess the available species diversity effect on ethno-medicinal knowledge diversity in Benin. METHODS: Ethnobotanical interviews were carried out to quantify the importance of local species in different ecological zones of Benin with 590 traditional medicine actors. Vegetation surveys were done to assess species availability within 337 plots of 50 m x 40 m or 60 m x 30 m, depending on the climatic zone, for a total of 61.6 ha, established in 15 forests distributed within the 10 phytodistricts of Benin. The plant use availability hypothesis was quantified as a dynamic link between species use value and availability (PUD). A general and mixed linear models were used to assess the significance of each factor's effect on PUD. Pearson correlation test was applied on Shannon diversity index considering inventoried species in the field and those which were cited by people, for the available species diversity effect on ethno-medicinal knowledge diversity assessment. RESULTS: A hundred and twenty woody medicinal plants, mostly trees (68.33%), were sampled. Growth form and its interaction with phytodistrict have a significant effect (p: 0.005) on PUD. The less available trees were the most used in the phytodistricts 3, 4, 8 and 10. PUD varies significantly according to social factors (p: 0.007). Ethnicity, age and main activity were the most quoted social factors which influenced the PUD. Ethnicity and age have various effects considering the phytodistricts. Moreover, the influence of age changes following the main activity. Plant selection did not solely link to the surrounding diversity (r: - 0.293; p: 0.403). Within some phytodistricts, especially those of 3, 4, 8 and 10, the less available tree species were the most requested. CONCLUSION: It is urgent to reforest vegetation patches in some phytodistricts (3, 4, 8 and 10) of Benin with widely requested and no available species to avoid the extinction of their wild populations. This concerns Cassia sieberiana DC., Anonychium africanum (Guill. & Perr.) C. E.Hughes & G. P. Lewis, Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir., Cola millenii K. Schum., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss., Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms, Treculia africana Decne. ex Trécul, Uapaca heudelotii Baill., Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn., Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. and Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau.

Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for various diseases in the remote areas of Changa Manga Forest, Pakistan / Usos etnomedicinais de plantas para várias doenças nas áreas remotas da Floresta Changa Manga, Paquistão

This study aims at reporting the indigenous knowledge of the medicinal flora from the inhabitants of surroundings of the World's largest artificial planted forest "Changa Manga", Pakistan. Data were collected by direct interviews and group meetings from 81 inhabitants including 32 local healers having information regarding the use of indigenous medicinal plants over a period of one year. Different statistical tools were applied to analyze the data including Frequency citation (FC), Relative frequency citation (RFC), Use Value, Factor of informants consensus and fidelity level. This study reported 73 plant species belonging to 37 plant families and 46 genera. The majority of plant species belong to compositae family. The most commonly used medicinal plants were P. hysterophorus L., P. dactylifera L., S. indicum L, P. harmala L., P. emblica L., and A. indica A.Juss. The greatest number of species was used to cure gastrointestinal disorders. The highest fidelity level (68.18%) was of E. helioscopia to cure gastrointestinal disorders. Maximum fresh uses (17) were reported by C. dactylon (L.) Pars. While the highest number of species reporting fresh uses in similar number was 13. In this study, five novel plants are being reported for the first time in Pakistan for their ethnomedicinal worth. Our data reflect unique usage of the medicinal plants in the study area. The statistical tools used in the study proved useful in pointing the most important and disease category specific plants. High use value plant and the new reported medicinal plants might prove an important source of the isolation of pharmacologically active compounds.

Este estudo tem como objetivo relatar o conhecimento indígena sobre a flora medicinal dos habitantes do entorno da maior floresta artificial plantada do mundo, a Changa Manga, no Paquistão. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas diretas e reuniões em grupo de 81 habitantes, incluindo 32 curandeiros locais, com informações sobre o uso de plantas medicinais indígenas durante o período de um ano. Diferentes ferramentas estatísticas foram aplicadas para analisar os dados, incluindo citação de frequência (FC), citação de frequência relativa (RFC), valor de uso, fator de consenso dos informantes e nível de fidelidade. Este estudo relatou 73 espécies de plantas pertencentes a 37 famílias de plantas e 46 gêneros. A maioria das espécies de plantas pertence à família Compositae. As plantas medicinais mais utilizadas foram P. hysterophorus L., P. dactylifera L., S. indicum L., P. harmala L., P. emblica L. e A. indica A. Juss. O maior número de espécies foi usado para curar distúrbios gastrointestinais. O maior nível de fidelidade (68,18%) foi de E. helioscopia para cura de distúrbios gastrointestinais. Os usos máximos em fresco (17) foram relatados por C. dactylon (L.) Pars. enquanto o maior número de espécies relatando usos frescos em número semelhante foi de 13. Neste estudo, cinco novas plantas estão sendo relatadas pela primeira vez no Paquistão por seu valor etnomedicinal. Nossos dados refletem o uso exclusivo das plantas medicinais na área de estudo. As ferramentas estatísticas utilizadas no estudo mostraram-se úteis para apontar as plantas mais importantes e específicas da categoria de doença. Plantas de alto valor de uso e as novas plantas medicinais relatadas podem ser uma importante fonte de isolamento de compostos farmacologicamente ativos.

Animal and their products used for treatment and prevention of disease practiced by traditional healers in Jimma Arjo district, East Wollega Zone, Western Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia is one of the countries with richest fauna used for medicinal purpose. The Jimma Arjo community has knowledge and practice of utilizing this medicinal animal for treatment of human and animal ailments. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research is to assess animals and their products used for treatment of human and animal ailment METHODS: A cross-sectional ethnozoological survey was conducted using a semi structured questionnaire among purposively selected traditional healers resided in Jimma Arjo district. The data collected was entered in Microsoft excel spread sheet and analysed using SPSS statistical software. Fidelity level (FL), use value and informant consensus factor was determined. RESULTS: A total of 33 animal species was found to be used for treating 40 human ailments and different livestock disease confirmed by 36 informants of different ages, sexes and educational backgrounds. The majority of animals (63.63%) were mammals followed by birds (15.15%). Most of the respondents were male, married and aged 55 years and above. Most of the healers learn ethnozoological practice from the father (36.11%) followed by mother (19.44%). The traditional practice is accepted by (72.22%) of the community where 61.11% of the healers are not willing to transfer their knowledge to other. For most of the healers, the reason to practice traditional healing was for treating one's own family or animals (41.67%). The FL was found 100% for honey from Apis mellifera and Trigona spp. for asthma, Cynopterus sphinx for viral skin disease and Crocuta crocuta for bad sprit treatment. In this study, honey from A. mellifera, Hystrix cristata and Sus scrofa domesticus were reported to cure different ailments. CONCLUSION: This study indicated wide use of medicinal animals and their products which could be used as an alternative and complementary medicine or a basis for in developing new drugs because the existing drugs especially antimicrobials are under threat due to the development of resistance by microbes.

Wild Edible Fruits as a Source of Food and Medicine: A Study among Tribal Communities of Southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Botanical surveys in all parts of Pakistan are mainly focused on ethnomedicinal uses of plants, and very little attention has been paid to documenting edible wild fruit species (EWFs). Multiple methodologies and tools were used for data collection. In a recent survey 74 EWF species belonging to 29 families were documented, including their medicinal uses for the treatment of various diseases. The most cited (23%) preparation method was raw, fresh parts. The UV and RFC of EWF species ranged from 0.08 to 0.4 and from 0.02 to 0.18, respectively. In terms of specific disease treatments and their consensus, the ICF ranged from 0 to 0.38. Sexual, gastrointestinal, and respiratory disorders had the highest use reports, and 11 species of plants had the highest FL of 100%. On the basis of uses reported by the inhabitants of seven districts of Southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, the CSI ranged from the lowest 1.3 to the highest 41. It is concluded that the traditional uses of EWF species depend mainly on socio-economic factors rather than climatic conditions or the number of species. However, there is a gradual loss of traditional knowledge among the younger generations. The present survey is the first baseline study about the socio-economic dimension of local communities regarding the use of EWF species for food as well as medicine.

Ethnozoological study of medicinal animals and animals' products used by traditional medicinal practitioners and indigenous people in Motta city administration and Hulet Eju Enessie District, East Gojjam, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: In Ethiopia, many ethnic communities use traditional/indigenous medicine for primary health care. However, this indigenous medicinal practice is being neglected and continued to be lost due to poor documentation as they are transferred from generation to generation through oral tradition. Therefore, this ethnozoological study aimed to assess and document the medicinal use of animals and animals' products used by traditional medicinal practitioners and indigenous people in Motta city administration and Hulet Eju Enessie Districts, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia. METHODS: Cross-sectional ethnozoological survey was conducted using a Semi-structured questionnaire among purposively selected respondents in Motta city administration and Hulet Eju Enessie District, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia from September 2020 to June 2021 GC. The ethnozoological data were analyzed using SPSS version 26 and Microsoft Excell Spreadsheet. Fidelity level, use-value, and informant consensus factor were determined. RESULTS: A total of 25 animal species were reported to be used for the treatment of different ailments by 33 informants. The majority of animals (64%) were mammals followed by birds (16%). The fidelity level ranged from 18.2 (Hyena for bad spirit) to 100% (stingless be for asthma, Tiger for rabies virus, Whisper for nightmare). CONCLUSION: This study showed the wide use of medicinal animals and their parts/products for meeting the primary healthcare needs of the community in the study area. Therefore, this ethnozoological medicinal knowledge needs to be integrated with modern medicine to use animals/animals' products as a potential source of effective drugs for different ailments.

The relevance of quantitative ethnobotanical indices for ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: As an interdisciplinary field of research ethnopharmacology draws on methodologies and methods from a variety of disciplines. A range of ethnobotanical indices are frequently used to transform primary data obtained through field studies into statistical measures. These indices are claimed to serve as a proxy for efficacy or drug discovery (Fidelity Level 'FL') and to show the importance of botanical drugs and plants used as medicines (Relative Importance 'RI', Use Value 'UV' or Cultural Importance Index 'CI', Cultural Value Index 'CV', Relative Frequency of Citation 'RFC'). This is, however, doubtful, as these indices have not been developed by statisticians, nor by pharmacologists while a proof of concept is lacking. Moreover, the question whether a simple number can summarize the cultural value or importance of plants is not only mathematical but also epistemological. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The FL, RI, UV/CI, CV and the RFC are shortly reviewed. Their statistical rigour is explained and the relevance for ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology and drug discovery discussed. RESULTS: The effect of the sample size on the dispersal of data and the differential probability of botanical drugs being used for the different categories of use are not being considered by these indices. They lack statistical rigour and are simple percentage calculations. Moreover, important factors influencing plant use, such as the availability of pharmaceutical drugs, or the severity of diseases covered by the use-categories, are not accounted for. CONCLUSION: Especially unexperienced and young researchers may be ensnared by using ethnobotanical indices to describe their field data. However, the cultural value and importance of plants in general, and more specifically, of medicinal plants and botanical drugs cannot be summed up by numbers. The discussed indices encrypt parts of the primary data but fail to show the value or importance of plant use because the reasons for which plants are valued or important to people are far more complex than what the formulations of these indices suggest. The indices also lack the power to pinpoint plant species or botanical drugs for drug discovery that contextualized primary data has. Botanical drugs may be useful for a range of disorders or only for specific indications, according to their pharmacologic properties. Therefore, the exclusiveness of therapeutical applications (FL) does not serve as a proxy for effectiveness. The solution is to use and understand the contextualized primary data.

Estimating the recreational value of a coastal wetland park: Application of the choice experiment method and travel cost interval analysis.

Estimating the recreational value of a coastal wetland park is useful in understanding wetland ecosystem and nurturing a balanced relationship between wetland tourism exploration and natural conservation. This study aims to apply appropriate methodologies to accurately estimate the recreational value of a coastal wetland park. The Nansha Wetland in China was used as the study site, and its recreational value was divided into non-use value (estimated using the choice experiment method (CEM)) and use value (estimated using travel cost interval analysis (TCIA)). The data were collected via questionnaires consisting of different choice experiment scenarios and travel cost investigations. The results showed that the per capita and total non-use values were 116.97 CNY/17.80 USD and 24.56 million CNY/3.74 million USD, respectively, and the per capita and total use values were 313.95 CNY/47.79 USD and 65.93 million CNY/10.04 million USD. Therefore, the per capita and total recreational values were 430.92 CNY/65.59 USD and 90.49 million CNY/13.77 million USD. CEM was used to identify tourists' trade-offs and preferences among the selected wetland attributes. As a result, tourists were found to have the largest marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for "mangrove coverage," followed by "species of rare birds" and "water visibility." TCIA was used to solve the under-dispersion problem of the number of trips. Based on these findings, several managerial implications were identified, including adjusting ticket price based on the non-use value, regulating tourists' behaviors, enhancing the protection of mangroves, improving the water quality and the living habitats of migrant birds, and promoting science education and popularization.

Fauna silvestre con valor de uso en la Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Huautla, Morelos, México / Wild fauna with use value in the Biosphere Reserve Sierra de Huautla, Morelos, Mexico

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo fue sistematizar las especies apropiadas, formas de apropiación y valores de uso asignados a la fauna silvestre en comunidades de la Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Huautla, México, mediante un análisis documental y trabajo de campo. Se registraron 46 especies con valor de uso pertenecientes a 31 familias. La clase con mayor número de especies apropiadas son las aves (42.5%), seguidas de los mamíferos (34%). El 64% de las especies se apropian con fines alimentarios y el 38.3% se utilizan para el tratamiento de enfermedades en la medicina tradicional. Otros usos son adornos, amuletos, elaboración de herramientas y como animal de compañía. La apropiación de fauna silvestre se realiza por medio de la cacería, la recolección y la pesca. Las armas de fuego como la escopeta es el principal instrumento para la cacería. También se utilizan perros, machetes, resorteras, tarrayas, anzuelos, nudos corredizos y se capturan manualmente. La apropiación puede ser una actividad oportunista u organizada por medio de las arreadas, espiadas, lampareadas, campeadas, acorralamiento y recolección manual. La apropiación de fauna silvestre es una actividad culturalmente arraigada en las comunidades de la reserva. Sin embargo, el análisis de la relación sociedad-fauna en la región es limitado, por lo que es necesario generar información que promueva el manejo sostenible del recurso faunístico.

Abstract The aims of this paper were the systematization of appropriated species, appropriation forms and assigned use values of wildlife species in the Biosphere Reserve of the Sierra de Huautla, Mexico, by means of documentary analysis and field work. We recorded 46 species with use value pertaining to 31 families. Birds accounted for the highest number of appropriated species (42.5%), followed by mammals (34%). Of the total species, 64% are appropriated for alimentary purposes and are used in the treatment of diseases in traditional medicine. Others are used as ornaments, talismans, in tool manufacture and as pet animals. Wildlife appropriation is achieved by hunting, collection and fishing. Fire arms such as shotguns are the main instrument used in hunting. Dogs, machetes, slingshots, nets, hooks, slipknots, are also used, or they are captured by hand. Appropriation can be an opportunistic or organized activity by means of "arreadas" (herding), "espiadas" (opportunistic observation), "lampareadas" (spotlighting), "campeadas" (scouring), "acorralamiento" (cornering) and manual collection. Wildlife appropriation is a culturally rooted activity in the reserve communities. Nevertheless, the analysis of the relationship society-fauna in the region is limited and this is why the generation of information that may enable a sustainable management of the faunistic resource is necessary.

Ethnomedicinal Plants Used in the Health Care System: Survey of the Mid Hills of Solan District, Himachal Pradesh, India.

The study was performed in the mid hills of the Dharampur region in Solan district of Himachal Pradesh, India. At the study site, a total of 115 medicinal plants were documented (38 trees, 37 herbs, 34 shrubs, 5 climbers, 1 fern, and 1 grass). In the study region, extensive field surveys were performed between March 2020 and August 2021. Indigenous knowledge of wild medicinal plants was collected through questionnaires, discussions, and personal interviews during field trips. Plants with their correct nomenclature were arranged by botanical name, family, common name, habitat, parts used, routes used, and diseases treated. In the present study, the predominant family was Rosaceae, which represented the maximum number of plant species, 10, followed by Asteraceae and Lamiaceae, which represented 8 plant species. The rural inhabitants of the Dharampur region in the Solan district have been using local plants for primary health care and the treatment of various diseases for a longer time. However, information related to the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants was not documented. The rural inhabitants of the Dharampur region reported that the new generation is not so interested in traditional knowledge of medicinal plants due to modernization in society, so there is an urgent need to document ethnomedicinal plants before such knowledge becomes inaccessible and extinct.

Uses, abundance perception, and potential geographical distribution of Smilax aristolochiifolia Mill (SMILACACEAE) on the Totonacapan Region of Puebla, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: In some regions of Mexico, edible wild plants have been displaced or eliminated from the traditional food systems, mainly by changes in land use, booming monoculture, herbicide use, and by changes among the new generations in the traditional foods and diets of indigenous populations. In the Totonacapan region of Puebla, the gradual change from the traditional acahual plantation to coffee-type agroecosystems has provoked the displacement of old-growth forests and the eradication of wild plants since 1970. One of the wild species which has been used in traditional medicine and food recipes by the Totonac culture is Smilax aristolochiifolia (SMILACACEAE), known as "kgentsililh". This species forms part of traditional Totonac recipes, in which the tender stems are still used in local medicine to treat menstrual pain, deal with dysentery, and prevent hair loss. According to the Maxent® Program, there are still potential areas with habitats suitable to promote its conservation in the Poblano Totonacapan. METHODS: We conducted 260 interviews with people in 13 locations in the northern Sierra of the State of Puebla. Variables taken into account in the interview related to the consumption frequency of the species, its abundance and distribution perception, reasons or arguments given by the Totonac indigenous population about the decreased presence of specimens of S. aristolochiifolia, its dates of collection, and the cutting prices of kgentsililh at the community level and in local markets. The relative abundance of S. aristolochiifolia was determined through 22 samples in 2ts of 600 m2. Later, its potential distribution in the state of Puebla was estimated using the Maxent® Program Ver. 3.3.3. RESULTS: Of the 260 Totonac families interviewed, 31% had stopped consuming kgentsililh. The residents reported that in the last 50 years the populations of this plant had diminished in the northern Sierra of the State of Puebla, mainly due to changes in land use, herbicide application, over-collection, and urban growth. In traditional medicine, the stem sap of S. aristolochiifolia is currently employed to help treat baldness, and the "tuberous root" or plant rhizome is used to prepare a tea infusion to treat dysentery. The cost of plant guides varies from 10.00 to 40.00 Mexican pesos for one bunch (around 0.5 to 2.00 US dollars), and every bundle consists of between 7 to 10 cuttings from 0.4 to 0.5 m long. From our 22 quadrats of sampling and collection of S. aristolochiifolia, we were able to recognize a total of 32 specimens. There is a considerable abundance of kgentsililh in acahual plantations and old-growth forests (evergreen lowland and mid-elevation perennial forest) concerning the coffee-type plantations and milpas. According to our analysis using the Maxent Program®, eight physical and climatic variables have a direct relationship to the potential distribution of the species. CONCLUSIONS: Smilax aristolochiifolia is still a plant of socioeconomic importance, mainly because of its food value and its use in traditional medicine by indigenous families in Poblano Totonacapan. It is evident that the villagers perceive that in the last 50 years the species has decreased its population mainly due to land-use change, the application of herbicides to the different family production units, and climate change. At the moment, there is no knowledge about the methods of propagation of the species, and therefore there is no intention on the part of the population to conserve the species. However, it would be of great importance to generate a biocultural conservation strategy and take advantage of the results obtained from the potential geographic distribution area, since according to the Maxent® Program, there are still potential areas with habitat suitable to promote conservation in Poblano Totonacapan.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira and Mpanga Central Forest Reserves, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Medicinal plants form an integral part of many health care systems in Uganda. This study aimed at documenting the therapeutic importance of plant species used in primary health care among communities living adjacent to Mabira and Mpanga forest reserves in Central Uganda. METHODS: An ethnobotanical study was conducted between April and June 2018 in 7 villages adjacent to Mpanga and 6 villages adjacent to Mabira central forest reserves. Information was obtained from 28 respondents identified using snowball and purposive sampling techniques and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were used to present the data. The quantitative analysis of data was done using fidelity level, informant consensus factor, and percent respondent knowledge indices. RESULTS: A total of 136 medicinal plants were recorded. The plant species classified into 55 families were grouped under 14 medical categories with the highest number of plant species being used for digestive disorders (44%), followed by respiratory (38%) and dermatological disorders (36%). Hoslundia opposita Vahl was mentioned by 71% of the respondents for treating 22 disease conditions. Plant Family Fabaceae was the most represented with 16 species. Informant consensus agreement was high (0.7) for respiratory disorders. The fidelity level was 100% for Bidens pilosa L. and Callistemon citrinus Skeels for treating wounds and cough, respectively. Plant remedies were mainly prepared by decoction (31%) and administered orally (36%). A large number of plants (61%) were harvested from wild habitats. Herbs (50%) and leaves (50%) contributed the highest percentage of plant biological forms and parts used in remedy preparation. CONCLUSION: This study recorded plant species with the potential to treat a wide range of illnesses. This is reflected in the high diversity of the recorded species used for medicinal purposes. Pharmacological studies on the plants with high percentage use values and fidelity levels are needed to validate their uses in the management of the said therapeutic applications. Further research on the isolation and characterization of the plant active compounds could lead to the discovery of new potential drugs.

Ethnobotanical characterization of medicinal plants used in Kisantu and Mbanza-Ngungu territories, Kongo-Central Province in DR Congo.

BACKGROUND: The phytotherapeutic knowledge of the Kongo people in the territories of Kisantu and Mbanza-Ngungu in Kongo-Central Province (DR Congo) is rapidly eroding. To document the remaining knowledge, we conducted an ethnobotanical survey on the most important medicinal plant species and diseases treated with them, as well as plants with therapeutic potential. We also checked for the cultural similarity in medicinal plant knowledge between the two territories and how knowledge about Kongo medicinal plants differs between different social groups. METHODS: From June 2017 until February 2018 and from February 2019 until April 2019, we conducted a survey with 188 phytotherapists, selected using the snowball method and surveyed using semi-structured interviews. Voucher specimens were taken for identification. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using medicinal use value (UVs), informant agreement ratio (IARs), informant consensus factor (ICF), and species therapeutic potential (STP). Rahman's similarity index was used for ethno-cultural comparison of medicinal plant knowledge between the two communities. Medicinal knowledge between different social groups was analyzed using non-parametric tests and Poisson regression. RESULTS: A total of 231 plants (i.e., 227 botanical species, representing 192 genera and 79 families) were reportedly used to treat 103 diseases. Most abundant taxa were reported for the Fabaceae family (including 11.9% of species and 10.9% of genera). Most reported species (45.0%) were from anthropized areas. Leaves (39.4%), herbs (37.1%), decoction (41.7%), and oral ingestion (72%) were the most frequently cited plant part, botanical form, preparation, and administration method, respectively. Four of all inventoried species showed high UVS (> 0.05), whereas eight had an IAR of one. According to ICF, 31 diseases were mentioned. Highest ICF (≥ 0.4) was observed for hemorrhoids (0.44), amoebiasis (0.43), and itchy rash (0.42). Fifty-four plant species were identified as likely possessing an interesting therapeutic potential. Low ethno-cultural similarity in medicinal knowledge (RSI = 16.6%) was found between the two territories. Analysis of the Kongo medicinal plant knowledge showed that the mean number of reported species and diseases vary considerably depending on gender, type, and residence of therapists (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Results prove that the Kongo phytopharmacopeia makes use of interesting medicinal plant species that could be further studied for conservation and pharmacological applications.

Local preferences for three indigenous oil-seed plants and attitudes towards their conservation in the Kénédougou province of Burkina Faso, West-Africa.

BACKGROUND: Carapa procera, Lophira lanceolata, and Pentadesma butyracea are three underutilized but increasingly threatened indigenous oil-seed tree species (IOS) in tropical Africa. Because local knowledge is vital for sustainable management, this study investigated the socio-economic factors that explain local people's (i) preferences for these IOS, (ii) attitudes toward their conservation, and (iii) ability to identify "plus trees" based on seed traits. We predicted a positive relationship between response variables and informants' age, residence status, gender (femaleness), and existence of market opportunities for each IOS. We also predicted that a higher preference for a given IOS has a positive effect on people's attitudes for its conservation and the aptitude to identify its "plus trees." We additionally expected significant differences among ethnic groups for each response variable. METHODS: Data were collected through individual semi-structured interviews with 336 informants from 14 randomly selected villages in the species distribution area of Kénédougou province. For each species, the collected data were the number of actual uses reported (converted to use value-UV, as a measure of the species preference), practiced conservation actions (converted to conservation attitude using a four-scale scoring method), and possible criteria for selecting preferred trees for seed oil extraction. Generalized linear mixed models were used to test for the fixed effects of socio-economic factors, and account for the random variation across villages. RESULTS: The results showed species-specific patterns. Carapa procera had the highest UV and hence was the most preferred IOS, particularly by women. Informants from the Siamou ethnic group had the highest UV irrespective of IOS. The most cited conservation actions were assisted natural regeneration and banning of tree cutting, which were practiced for C. procera and L. lanceolata. No conservation measure was cited for P. butyracea. The practice of tree planting was not recorded for any of the IOS. Young and male informants participated less in conservation actions. Tree selection for oil-seed collection was mainly guided not by "oil extraction yield" but rather by the "quality of extracted oil" (namely oil color and taste for food uses, and oil bitterness for medicinal efficacy). The selection mainly concerned L. lanceolata and was mostly practiced by elderly people. CONCLUSION: This study provided useful local knowledge-based information to guide conservation actions and valorization strategies of three IOS. The study sheds further light on the socio-economic factors that are associated to local people's preferences, conservation attitudes, and individual tree selection.

Nomenclatura y usos del culantro de monte (Eryngium foetidum L) en la comunidad San Antonio de Padua, cantón Quinsaloma, Provincia de Los Ríos ­ Ecuador / Names and uses of the Culantro de Monte (Eryngium foetidum L) in the San Antonio de Padua community, Los Ríos ­ Ecuador

Culantro de monte (Eryngium foetidum L.) is a biennial herb of tropical origin very frequent in America, Africa and the Caribbean. With the arrival of Europeans in the fifteenth century, it managed to be distributed to various locations in Asia and Europe. The present study was carried out in the San Antonio de Padua community in the Province of Los Ríos - Ecuador to collect information, through interviews with the residents, regarding the nomenclature and uses of this aromatic herb. It was found that 52% of the interviewees mention a nutritional use, especially as a condiment for fish soup, buns and stews, while 26% say they use this plant for medicinal purposes in infusions to cure stomach and joint pain. The variety of metabolites that it possesses, such as eryngial (E-2-Dodecenal), extends its range of applications in modern medicine. We concluded that the transfer of ethnobotanical information still remains in the community, but the young generations are unaware of several of this plant's applications.

El culantro de monte (Eryngium foetidum L.) pertenece a la familia Apiaceae, es una hierba terrestre bienal de origen tropical muy frecuente en América, África y el Caribe, con la llegada de los europeos en el siglo XV, logró distribuirse a varias regiones de Asia y Europa. El presente estudio se realizó en la comunidad San Antonio de Padua en la provincia de Los Ríos ­ Ecuador, tuvo como objetivo recopilar información, mediante entrevistas escritas a los pobladores, referente a la nomenclatura y usos de esta hierba. Se encontró que un 52% de los entrevistados le da un uso culinario para preparar sopas de pescado, sancochos, bollos y estofados, mientras que un 26% dice utilizar esta planta con fines medicinales en infusiones para tratar en el ser humano dolores estomacales y dolores de las articulaciones. La variedad de metabolitos que posee, como el eryngial (E-2-Dodecenal), amplía su rango de aplicaciones en la medicina moderna. Se concluye que el flujo de información etnobotánica se mantiene en la comunidad, pero las nuevas generaciones desconocen las varias aplicaciones que tiene esta especie.

Exploitation of ethnoecologically important wild trees by two ethnic groups in a community-based Hippopotamus Sanctuary in Northwestern Ghana.

Use of wild tree species by smallholder farmers for various purposes is crucially important for their daily livelihoods. However, the growing demand for these natural resources could lead to their overexploitation and environmental change. The aims of this ethnobotanical research in the Wechiau Community-based Hippopotamus Sanctuary (WCHS) were to i) document wild tree species, uses and analyze their cultural importance, ii) investigate socio-demographic variables of smallholder farmers influencing their traditional knowledge on wild tree species and uses, and iii) examine smallholder farmers ' perceptions about the establishment of the WCHS. To attain the above-stated aims, 135 smallholder farmers were interviewed in nine villages belonging to the Waala and Birfor ethnic groups. The primary data were subjected to rigorous statistical analysis (using Cognitive Salience index reflecting cultural importance, univariate and use value analysis). Given the results of this study, the WCHS is enriched with 43 ethnoecologically important wild tree species belonging to 22 families and 41 genera. This study showed that eight topmost wild tree species in descending order of cultural importance included Vitellaria paradoxa, Burkea Africana, Diospyrous mespiliformis, Bombax costatum, Parkia biglobosa, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Terminalia avicennioides and Acacia gourmaensis. It is also established in this paper that the family cultural importance for Fabaceae and Sapotaceae is predominantly high as reflected in the frequency and ranking of citations of wild tree species under these families by local informants. The 43 wild tree species cited by local informants were categorized into nine different uses including food (9 species), forage (30), firewood (40), medicine (6), construction (9), soil improvement (3), social use (2), gardening (5) and fiber/ropes (2). Among these use categories, firewood, forage, food and construction topped the list as the most culturally important to the smallholder farmers. It is also revealed that the traditional knowledge on varied wild tree species and their uses was significantly affected by age of smallholder farmers (ps < 0.05), but not ethnicity and other factors. This study thus suggests the need for community-based conservation measures for sustainable management of natural resources for rural livelihood improvement in the tropics and sub-tropics.

Investigation of anti-diabetic plants used among the ethnic communities of Kanpur division, India.

ETHNO PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Kanpur division is one of the large areas of India with diverse traditional medicinal heritage. In this area, a large number of people suffer from diabetes mellitus. People in this area handle diabetes with herbal and modern medicinal treatments. However, folk knowledge for the treatment of diabetes is not documented. AIM OF THE STUDY: To document and promulgate the enormous indigenous knowledge of therapeutic importance of herbal plants used by the local practitioners for diabetes mellitus. MATERIALS AND METHOD: Total 44 local practitioners (28 male and 16 female) were interviewed through a questionnaire. The medicinal plants suggested by the practitioners were identified by the taxonomist, and plant specimens were preserved. RESULTS: Thirty-five species of plants, belonging to 24 families, were suggested by 44 local healers of Kanpur division. The fidelity level (FL), use values (UV) and relative frequency of citation (RFC) for each plant have been analyzed. The UV, FL, and RFC values of the recorded plants ranged between 0.97 to 0.23, 82.7%-24.1% and 0.327 to 0.067, respectively. Leguminosae family dominated with 14.28% of the total plants. The highest used life form was recorded as tree (43%) while the most widely used plant part was leaf (30.6%). The highest UV, FL, and RFC were recorded for the Aloe vera L. (0.97), Syzygium cumini L. (82.7%) and Momordica charantia L. (0.327) respectively. CONCLUSION: The present study exhibits the knowledge and use of anti-diabetic plants adopted by the ethnic communities of Kanpur division. Future pharmacological investigations are required to test the potency and efficacy of herbal treatments. There is also a need for sustainable use and conservation of these medicinally useful plants.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants traded in herbal markets of Kahramanmaras.

Most people in the world still use medicinal plants to treat and prevent disease. In Anatolia, studies have shown that people have used plants for centuries to treat many diseases. Herbal markets play an important role in the supply of medicinal plants and the transmission of cultural heritage. In this study, we investigated the traditional uses of medicinal plants traded in Kahramanmaras herbal markets. We also analyzed the threats that may arise from the use of medicinal plants and the measures that can be taken to protect these plants. For these purposes, ethnomedicinal data were collected using semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires of herbalists and local people. Ethnobotanical indices (e.g., Relative Frequency of Citation, Use Value, Relative Importance, and Informant Consensus Factor) were used to quantify the use and cultural importance of medicinal plants sold at Kahramanmaras herbal markets. We identified 62 taxa (11 imported) of plants that are used in traditional folk medicines. The top three plant taxa sold per year by herbalists at Kahramanmaras herbal markets are Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra; 140 kg), Thyme (Thymus sp.; 109 kg), and Carob (Ceratonia siliqua; 106.5 kg). The plant parts and mode of utilization used most are leaves (28 reports) and infusion (36 reports), respectively. The highest ICF value was detected for endocrine system ailments (0.78), and the next highest two values were lymphatic system (0.75) and respiratory system ailments (0.72). We determined that Urtica dioica, G. glabra, Thymus sp., Mentha x piperita have widely traditional uses, with high ethnobotanical index values and use reports. In addition, according to IUCN criteria, 26 of 62 taxa identified in the research are under threat to various degrees on a global scale.

Quantitative ethnopharmacological profiling of medicinal shrubs used by indigenous communities of Rawalakot, District Poonch, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

Abstract This paper presents the first comprehensive report on traditional uses of medicinal shrubs of Rawalakot city, district Poonch, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Ethobotanical data obtained from 120 informants were analyzed by relative frequency citation, use value, family use value, informant consensus factor, fidelity level and Jaccard index. In total, 41 shrubs belonging to 24 families and 34 genera were documented. Rosaceae was reported the most dominant family in the area (six species) and Berberidaceae showed maximum family use value (0.68). Leaves (35%) and fruits (33%) were the most commonly used plant parts and most of the medicines were prepared in the form of decoction. The high informant consensus factor value (0.94) was recorded for diabetic disease category. Medicinal plants with high fidelity level values (100% each) were Berberis lycium, Cydonia oblanga, Ricinus communis, Ziziphus jujuba and Nerium oleander. Berberis lycium was the most significant shrub in the area with highest use value (0.68). Relative frequency citation value was maximum for Rubus ellipticus (0.30), Nerium oleander and Indigofera heterantha (0.10 each). Percentage of similar plant uses ranged from 21.05 to 0.62% and dissimilarity percentage ranged from 32.50 to 0.66%. Out of the 41 shrub species, six were reported with new therapeutic uses and may represent new bioresources. These were Debregeasia salicifolia (diabetes), Desmodium elegans (anti-cancerous), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (jaundice), Hypericum oblongifolium (arthritis), Sarcococca saligna (tuberculosis), Rubus niveus (chronic cough) and Otostegia limbata (renal disorders). We suggest that species reported with high use value should be involved in cultivation and agricultural practices for their sustainable use and those reported with new therapeutic uses should be employed in further biotechnological, pharmacological and clinical studies in order to validate their traditional uses.

Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Sete Cidades, Azores Archipelago: First Ethnomedicinal Report.

Knowledge about folk medicines is limited to elder community members of remote communities, like Sete Cidades in the Azores. The Azores, 1300 km west of Portugal, are nine volcanic islands, totalling 2330 km2 of land dispersed by 173,200 km2 in the North Atlantic Ocean. The present study aims to scientifically document the uses of plant species for medicinal purposes, in the Sete Cidades. Twenty-eight community members from 40 to 84 years of age, of whom half were 55 to 64 years old, were interviewed. Twenty-nine taxa were reported as being used for medicinal purposes, ten of which have not been previously reported for ethnomedicinal use in Portugal, with a first record of the use of Morella faya. Leaves were the most used plant part (55%), and decoction the most common preparation mode. The five reported taxa with both the highest use value (0.71-0.25) and relative frequency of citation (0.14-0.11) were Clinopodium menthifolium subsp. ascendens, Aloysia citriodora, Mentha x piperita, Citrus limon and Rosmarinus officinalis. The traditional uses of some of the reported plants are supported by scientific studies, confirming their ethnomedicinal value and the need to preserve local knowledge of folk medicine practices.

Use of mammals in a semi-arid region of Brazil: an approach to the use value and data analysis for conservation.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to survey the knowledge and use of mammals by the residents of the rural community of Capivara in the municipality of Solânea (Paraíba State, Northeast Brazil) and to propose a new method of using the use value as a tool for data analysis in ethnozoological surveys. METHODS: The uses attributed to mammals were recorded through semi-structured interviews conducted with the breadwinners (men and women) living in the community. The species were identified through guided tours, by descriptions made by the interviewees, and using specimens donated by them, as well as by comparison with the pertinent scientific literature (morphological and ecological). Through the use value differentiated analysis, it was possible to distinguish the current use value of the species (effective use) from their potential use value (knowledge, but no effective use) to determine their real importance related to the uses cited by the studied group. RESULTS: Nineteen species were cited; however, only 17 of them were identified and then distributed in 13 families. The other species were identified at the genus level Leopardus sp. and order Rodentia. The species were classified into 6 categories of use: food, captive breeding, zootherapeutic, artisanal, magic/religious, and veterinary purposes. CONCLUSIONS: This article discusses possible conservation solutions, given the irregular exploitation of some species, warning about the biodiversity, and traditional knowledge conservation.